Constructivism in Practice

The constructivist theory identifies the acquisition of knowledge as a highly personal action. Each individual constructs their own personal meaning as they assimilate or accommodate their experiences into their existing schema (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011). Constructionism, a theory on learning, elaborates upon constructivism and proclaims that people learn best by constructing, or building, artifacts (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011). The acts of generating and testing hypotheses are intrinsically constructivist and constructionist in nature. As a student develops a hypothesis, or an educated guess, they make predictions about cause and effect relationships based upon the schema they already possess. When a student tests a hypothesis, they have an opportunity to witness the actual outcome to their prediction. The result can lead to a confirmation of their beliefs, or it can lead to an altering of their beliefs as they make sense of what they witnessed. For a curious student, this can also lead to the development of a new hypothesis as they consider the consequences of changing a variable within the experiment.  The instructional strategy of generating and testing hypotheses has many applications within a constructivist/constructionist learning environment. The use of problem-based and project-based learning experiences provides one such opportunity.  

As a science teacher, the generation and testing of hypotheses represents a critical component of my curriculum and instruction. The use of experiments and inquiry-based activities are woven into each unit of instruction that I cover. I feel very confident and well-versed in the hands-on application of this instructional strategy. However, I am not as experienced in the use of technology-based programs that facilitate the generating and testing of hypotheses. Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski (2007), identify six tasks that can be used in a classroom setting to help students generate and test hypothesis, one of which is systems analysis. “In a systems analysis, students study the parts of a system … and make predictions about what would change if one or more parts… were altered or removed” (Pitler et al., 2007, p. 203). The use of systems analysis helps students to identify patterns and test their hypotheses on large-scale systems, such as the solar system or ecosystem, which would be otherwise impossible to manipulate.

One electronic resource for generating and testing hypotheses within a project-based context is called Astro-venture. This website, provided through NASA, is geared for students in grades five through eight, and is organized so that students show their understanding by designing an artifact, a habitable planet, at the end of the activity. The animated, kid-friendly module first asks students to make predictions on humans’ needs for survival and the characteristics of our solar system that make life possible. It then provides students with training and missions in astronomy, atmospheric science, geology, and biology. During the “missions”, students generate and test hypotheses on different topics, like the chemical composition of our atmosphere and the size of our star. As they manipulate the variables, they are able to watch the animated outcomes and then are prompted to record their observations in a digital journal that is built into the module. When done with each of the missions, students move on to the artifact creation portion where they select the specifications for their own planet. Finally, when fully designed, they can test their planet’s habitability. If it is uninhabitable, they can go back, retest in the missions, and alter their hypothesized planet specifications. I am so excited to have been introduced to Astro-Venture and plan on utilizing it with a group of students during a science enrichment activity period that I run. Making a hypothesis of my own, I predict that they will be completely engaged in the activity, have meaningful learning occur, and enjoy using this website.

References

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2011). Program seven: Constructionist and constructivist learning theories [Video webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Retrieved from http://laureate.ecollege.com/ec/crs/default.learn?CourseID=5700267&CPURL=laureate.ecollege.com&Survey=1&47=2594577&ClientNodeID=984650&coursenav=0&bhcp=1

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Cognitive Learning Theories

Cognitivists define learning “as a mental operation that takes place when information enters through the senses, undergoes mental manipulation, is stored, and is finally used” (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p. 16). This process is outlined by the information-processing model, which provides the basis for the cognitive learning theories. New information is presented to the learner through their sensory registers and moves into their short-term, or working, memory, before processing into storage within their long-term memory (Laureate Education Inc., 2011a).  Cognitive experts have identified different elements of learning that help to move information through the stages of the information processing model. Dual coding and elaboration are two examples of integral parts of this networked model for learning (Laureate Education Inc., 2011a). Connections made between ideas as a result of these two examples help to make it possible for an individual to recall or apply previously learned information.

Cues, questions, and advance organizers are instructional strategies that can be used to strengthen students’ “ability to retrieve, use, and organize information about a topic” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007). Cues and questions serve to activate connections within the mind’s network and help students to recall related information that they already have stored within their brains. As students encounter new information, advance organizers assist students in focusing and classifying their learning (Pitler, et al., 2007). Teachers have many options when turning to technology in order to support these instructional strategies. When introducing a new topic, a teacher may find it helpful to utilize expository, narrative, or graphic advance organizers to preview and direct student learning (Pitler, et al., 2007). Organizing software, such as Kidspiration, can be used to classify and draw connections between new ideas and students’ prior knowledge. A variety of additional word processing, spreadsheet, organizing and brainstorming, and multimedia resources exist which support the instructional strategies of cues, questions, and advance organizers.

When working with new information, learning deepens as students acquire the capacity to identify the most important components and develop their own personal understanding of the concept. Note taking and summarizing are two instructional strategies that make this possible. In Using Technology With Classroom Instruction that Works, it is explained that these strategies “focus on enhancing students’ ability to synthesize information and distill it into a concise new form” (Pitler, et al., 2007, p. 119). Features on Microsoft Word, along with software like Inspiration and a variety of web resources can be used to explicitly teach students how to summarize and take notes. Groups of students can even collaborate to take notes or summarize a topic on a wiki. Whether done individually, or as part of a group, note taking and summarizing help students by providing a structured format to assist them in processing information.

Different cognitive, or mind, tools can also be used to assist students in processing information that they would not otherwise be able to understand (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011a). Students create concept maps to help organize and link their ideas together visually (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011a).  Creating connections and identifying relationships between pieces of information helps to make learning meaningful. The human brain is limited with the number of pieces of information it can process and store in short-term memory. In this week’s video resource, Dr. Orey explains that the limit extends to seven, plus or minus two, pieces of information at a given time (Laureate Education Inc., 2011a). During concept mapping, a student classifies information and develops connections between ideas, thereby working to move information from short-term to long-term memory. According to Novak and Canas, concept mapping “serves as a kind of template or scaffold to help to organize knowledge and structure it, even though the structure must be built up piece by piece with small units of interacting concept and propositional frameworks” (2008, p. 7).

Meaningful learning also occurs as students go through rich experiences. These episodic memories can serve as foundations with which related new information can be connected (Laureate Education Inc., 2011b). Engaging students in virtual field trips provides them with episodic memories for content with which they may not have had any other prior experience. It gives them an opportunity to connect content to the sights and sounds that entered their sensory registers and were moved into short and long-term memory during the experience. This type of activity also makes sites and locations  accessible that would not have ordinarily been so because of time, distance, and financial constraints.

The cognitive learning theories, and the information processing model on which they are based, can be supported with a variety of instructional strategies and cognitive tools. Cues, questions, and advance organizers activate prior knowledge and focus learning, while note taking and summarizing help students to synthesize information. Cognitive tools like concept mapping and the use of virtual field trips help students to link ideas into a networked model of understanding.

 

References

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2011a). Program five: Cognitive learning theory [Video webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Retrieved from http://laureate.ecollege.com/ec/crs/default.learn?CourseID=5700267&CPURL=laureate.ecollege.com&Survey=1&47=2594577&ClientNodeID=984650&coursenav=0&bhcp=1

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2011b). Program six: Spotlight on technology: Virtual field trips [Video webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Retrieved from http://laureate.ecollege.com/ec/crs/default.learn?CourseID=5700267&CPURL=laureate.ecollege.com&Survey=1&47=2594577&ClientNodeID=984650&coursenav=0&bhcp=1

Lever-Duffy, J., & McDonald, J. (2008). Teaching and learning with technology (3^rd ed. pp. 2-35). Boston: Pearson Education.

Novak, J.D., & Canas, A.J. (2008). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them, Technical Report IHMC CmapTools 2006-01 Rev 01-2008. Retrieved from the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition Web site: http://cmap.ihmc.us/Publications/ResearchPapers/TheoryUnderlyingConceptMaps.pdf

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Behaviorism in Practice

In the field of education, the ultimate goal is for students to learn new ideas and concepts. For many years, experts have conducted research and theorized different ideas on how students garner this fresh information. One theory, the behaviorist learning theory, explains that learning manifests with an observable change in behavior (Smith, 1999). Furthermore,”Behaviorist learning theories emphasize changes in behavior that result from stimulus-response associations made by the learner” (Orey, 2001). Elements of the behaviorist learning theory, namely positive and negative reinforcements, punishments, and extinction are readily applied as part of classroom management plans. However, this is not the only application for the learning theory in classrooms of today. This week’s learning resources also helped to identify the connections between behaviorism and the instructional strategies of reinforcing effort and homework and practice.

According to Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Works, “reinforcing effort enhances students’ understanding of the relationship between effort and achievement by addressing their attitudes and beliefs about learning” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007). Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski (2001) suggest that students should be given instruction on the important role their effort can play on their academic success, and that students should record and track the correlation between their effort and achievement levels. This instructional strategy supports behaviorist principles because it helps students to develop and strengthen their awareness of this relationship. Using a rubric, spreadsheet, or online data collector to record this information assists students in visualizing the correlation between the specific actions or behaviors that lead to positive outcomes. According to Parkay and Hass (2000), “the desired response must be rewarded in order for learning to take place” (as cited in Orey, 2001). In the case of using a rubric, the desired response is rewarded with a high score.

While this strategy could be very powerful for students who thoughtfully assess themselves, the relationship would be flawed for any students who inaccurately rate themselves. Therefore, teacher-completed rubrics should also be used to show the connection between effort and achievement. As a fifth grade teacher, I find it critical to read an entire rubric with my students before setting them loose to begin work. While incredibly time-consuming and tedious, reading each rubric box, and identifying the differences between the point values, highlights the specific expectations and encourages many students to put in an appropriate amount of effort. If you are in need of a highly task-specific rubric, one can easily be made in a Microsoft Word chart or Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. Another reliable resource for rubric creation is Rubistar. This website also includes a large variety of premade rubrics that can be used as-is or adapted to your specific assignment. Finally, the Easy Assessment application can be used on iPads, iPhones, or iPods to create rubrics and assess student work. While you have to pay to use this app ($1.99), it also allows you to attach video or photographic evidence to support and strengthen your assessment. You can also upload class lists and export completed rubrics via Dropbox or email.

Another instructional strategy that supports the behaviorist learning theory is that of homework and practice. “Having students practice a skill or concept enhances their ability to reach the expected level of proficiency” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007, p. 188). As part of the behaviorist learning theory, Smith (1999) asserts that, in order for learning to take place, students must frequently practice skills in a variety of contexts. While time for practice is usually given during school hours, homework is also often given as a continuation of that practice outside of the classroom. As the world becomes more connected, homework increasingly requires access to a web resource.  Many textbook series now contain a web component that can be used to assign homework online. My school purchased our language arts series, Reading Street, with student subscriptions to Pearson SuccessNet, which I can use to assign homework. In fact, I can also use SuccessNet to assign homework to my science students through our school’s online-only subscription to the Scott Foresman Science series. Since I do not actually have the science text to use in class, I also supplement my teaching with videos, animations, and content from Discovery Education and Brainpop, both of which can be used to assign homework.

In addition to using web resources for homework, online educational games can be used to provide repetition and practice of skills. “Online educational games have an inherent appeal and generate immediate feedback that allows a student, parent, and teacher to monitor progress toward mastery” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007, p. 195). My school utilizes Study Island to provide practice, repetition, and remediation of standards-based skills within the context of online games. I have also had great success utilizing online games to aid in the learning of typing. Freetypinggame.net is one website that my students like to frequent. The gaming element brings out their competitive natures, and they are able to practice their typing skills while trying to improve upon their own personal best scores. Online games also help to erase the tediousness of repetition while adding some fun to skills practice.

Although the behaviorism may no longer be at the forefront learning theories, its principles can still be effectively applied in some areas of today’s classrooms. Many classroom management plans incorporate aspects of positive and negative reinforcements and punishments. Strengthening the relationship between effort and achievement and repetitive practice and homework are also instructional strategies grounded in behaviorism that still have an important role in the field of education.

 

References:

Orey, M. (Ed.). (2001). Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Main_Page

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Smith, K. (1999). The behaviourist orientation to learning. In The encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved from http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-behavourist.htm